Sri Maharajadiraja Sri Kertanegara Wikrama Dharmatunggadewa,[1] Kritanagara, or Sivabuddha (died 1292), was the last and most important ruler of the Singhasari kingdom of Java, reigning from 1268 to 1292. Under his rule Javanese trade and power developed considerably, reaching the far corners of the Indonesian archipelago.
Background[]
Kertanegara was the fifth ruler of Singasari and was the son of the previous king, Wisnuwardhana (r. 1248–1268). He effectively held power from 1254 and officially succeeded his father when the latter died in 1268.[2]Template:Rp The Singasari dynasty had come to power in Java following the overthrow of the previous Kediri Kingdom by Ken Arok, the first Singhasari ruler in 1222.
Kertanegara was a follower of a mystical Tantric syncretism of Hinduism and Buddhism, and presented himself as the divine god-king incarnation of Shiva and Buddha.Template:Sfn Kertanegara celebrated many religious festivals and commissioned sculptures and metal plaques during his reign.
Conquests[]
Statue of Amoghapasa presented by Kertanegara of Singhasari to the Melayu Kingdom of East Sumatra
Singhasari reached the height of its power during Kertanegara's rule, which saw the dramatic expansion of Javanese power into Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and Bali. He extended Javanese involvement in the lucrative spice trade with the Maluku Islands. He also put down rebellions in Java by Cayaraja (Bhayaraja) in 1270 and Mahisha Rangkah in 1280.[1][2]Template:RpTemplate:Sfn
Kertanegara was the first Javanese ruler with territorial ambitions that extended beyond the island of Java. In 1284, he subjected nearby Bali to vassalage. Kertanegara managed to form an alliance with Champa, another dominant state in Southeast Asia.[3]
Late in his reign, the Pamalayu expedition succeeded in gaining control of the Melayu Kingdom in eastern Sumatra, and possibly also gained control over the Sunda Kingdom and hegemony over the Strait of Malacca.Template:Sfn Other areas in Madura Island and Borneo also offered their submission to Kertanegara.[1]
Conflict with the Mongols[]
Following the conquest of Song China, the Mongol Yuan dynasty sought to extend its power in Southeast Asia. In 1289 Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis khan, sent his own ambassadors to Java, demanding tribute and submission to the Yuan dynasty. Kertanegara took grave offense to the request and arrested the envoys. He branded their faces, cut their ears and sent them back to China with disfigured faces.[3]
Knowing that the Mongols would send a military expedition to punish him, Kertanegara tried to solidify his power. Around 1290, he launched the Pamalayu expedition to Sumatra, in order to conquer Jambi in the south, one of successor states to Srivijaya. Jambi was one of the first Indonesian polities where Islam had established its presence, and it already entertained cordial relationships with Yuan China.
Kublai Khan ordered that a strong punitive naval expedition be launched against the remote equatorial islands in order to punish Kertanegara in 1292.[2]Template:Rp
Rebellion of Jayakatwang[]
In the meantime, Kertanegara had dominated all of Java, but before the Mongol fleet arrived, a dramatic political change occurred. Jayakatwang, prince of Kediri and one of Singhasari's most powerful vassals, rebelled against his overlord. With the bulk of the Javanese army in campaign overseas and Singasari's defence weakened, Jayakatwang seized his chance and launched a coup against Kertanegara.[3] He launched a diversionary attack to northern East Java, where his troops drew the remaining Singhasari troops left on the island away from the capital. With Kutaraja, the Singhasari capital defenseless, Jayakatwang attacked the capital city unnoticed from the mountainous southern region.Template:Sfn
Kertanegara was killed along with many courtiers in his palace in Singhasari in May or June 1292. Jayakatwang then declared himself ruler of Java and king of the restored Kediri Kingdom.[2]Template:Rp
Among the few surviving relatives of Kertanegara was his son-in-law, Raden Wijaya, who fled to Madura Island, where he was sheltered by its regent, Arya Viraraja. Vijaya then established himself in the lower Brantas delta, where he built a settlement that would grow into the mighty empire of Majapahit.[2]Template:Rp
Legacy[]
Raden Wijaya used the oncoming Mongol troops to overthrow Jayakatwang. Wijaya then betrayed his Mongol allies,[2]Template:Rp who were exhausted after the war,[3] drove them from Java and established Majapahit as one of the greatest empires to arise from within the area covered by the modern territory of Indonesia.
Kertanegara had no male heir,Template:Sfn but through his daughter Gayatri Rajapatni, who married Raden Wijaya, Kertanegara became the ancestor of Rajasa dynasty, the ruling dynasty of Majapahit. His daughter Gayatri and his granddaughter Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi would become queen regnant of Majapahit.Template:Sfn His great-grandson Hayam Wuruk became the greatest king of Majapahit, which under his rule became one of the greatest empires in Nusantara.
Kertanegara was later eulogized as Mahaksobya Dyani Buddha by his descendants in the Wurare Inscription.[4]
In 1273 Saka or corresponds to the year 1351 CE, Gajah Mada the Mahapatih of Majapahit issued an inscription to commemorate the construction of a funerary caitya or burial temple dedicated to King Kertanegara that died in 1214 Saka (1292 CE).[5] The temple mentioned in this inscription most possibly refer to the syncretic Shivaist-Buddhist Singhasari temple, since this inscription was discovered near this temple. It seems that Gajah Mada specifically held the late king Kertanegara in high esteem and pay special tribute even 58 years after his death, which led for historian to suggests a possible link between them.[5] Nevertheless, both men are known for their aspiration to unify the Nusantara archipelago.
The concept of Nusantara as a unified region was not invented by Gajah Mada in 1336, but was first coined by Kertanegara in Mula Malurung inscription dated 1255.[6] Furthermore, in 1275, the term Cakravala Mandala Dvipantara was used by him to describe the aspiration of united Southeast Asian archipelago under Singhasari and marked the beginning of his efforts to achieve it.[7] Dvipantara is a Sanskrit word for the "islands in between", making it a synonym to Nusantara as both dvipa and nusa mean "island". Kertanegara envisioned the union of Southeast Asian maritime kingdoms and polities under Singhasari as a bulwark against the rise of the expansionist Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China. It is very possible that Gajah Mada has made Kertanegara a role model and took his idea as a political inspiration to unify the archipelago.
Sexuality[]
Historical sources are not very clear or consistent about his personal life and sexual orientation. However, some scholars have suggested that he may have had homosexual or bisexual tendencies, based on some evidence and interpretations of his religious beliefs, artistic expressions, and political actions.
One of the main sources of evidence for Kertanegara’s possible homosexuality is his Tantric syncretism of Hinduism and Buddhism, which presented him as the divine god-king incarnation of Shiva and Buddha. According to some Tantric teachings, the union of opposites, such as male and female, is a way of achieving enlightenment and transcendence. Some Tantric practices also involve sexual rituals and erotic imagery, which may include same-sex or multiple partners. Therefore, some scholars have argued that Kertanegara may have engaged in homosexual or bisexual acts as part of his religious devotion and spiritual quest.
Another source of evidence is the artistic and cultural expressions that Kertanegara commissioned or patronized during his reign. For example, he ordered the construction of the Jawi Temple, which contains a statue of himself as Buddha Mahaksobhya. 1 The statue depicts him with feminine features, such as long hair, earrings, and a necklace. 2 Some scholars have interpreted this as a sign of his androgyny or gender fluidity. Another example is the Padang Roco inscription, which records his gift of a statue of Amoghapasa to the Melayu Kingdom in Sumatra. The inscription praises the beauty and grace of the statue, using terms that are usually reserved for women or lovers. 2 Some scholars have suggested that this may indicate Kertanegara’s attraction or affection for the male deity.
A third source of evidence is the political and diplomatic actions that Kertanegara took during his reign. For instance, he formed an alliance with Champa, another dominant state in Southeast Asia, which was known for its acceptance and celebration of homosexuality. 13 He also sent an envoy to China to seek a marriage alliance with Kublai Khan’s daughter. However, some scholars have speculated that this was a cover for his real intention of seeking a male partner from the Mongol court.
These are some of the possible evidence and arguments for Kertanegara’s homosexuality or bisexuality. However, they are not conclusive or definitive, as they are based on interpretations and speculations that may be influenced by cultural biases or personal opinions.
See also[]
Template:Portal
- History of Indonesia
- Pararaton
- Nagarakretagama
References[]
Bibliography[]
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