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The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the Atharvaveda.

The Vedas (Template:IPAc-en;[1] Sanskrit: Template:Lang Template:IAST, "knowledge") are a large body of knowledge texts originating in the ancient Indian subcontinent. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism.[2][3] Hindus consider the Vedas to be apauruṣeya, which means "not of a man, superhuman"[4] and "impersonal, authorless".[5][6][7]

Vedas are also called Template:IAST ("what is heard") literature,[8] distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are called Template:IAST ("what is remembered"). The Veda, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations seen by ancient sages after intense meditation, and texts that have been more carefully preserved since ancient times.[9][10] In the Hindu Epic the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to Brahma.[11] The Vedic hymns themselves assert that they were skillfully created by Rishis (sages), after inspired creativity, just as a carpenter builds a chariot.[10]Template:Refn

There are four Vedas: the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda.[12][13] Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the Upanishads (texts discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).[12][14][15] Some scholars add a fifth category – the Upasanas (worship).[16][17]

The various Indian philosophies and denominations have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their scriptural authority are classified as "orthodox" (āstika).Template:Refn Other śramaṇa traditions, such as Lokayata, Carvaka, Ajivika, Buddhism and Jainism, which did not regard the Vedas as authorities, are referred to as "heterodox" or "non-orthodox" (nāstika) schools.[18][19] Despite their differences, just like the texts of the śramaṇa traditions, the layers of texts in the Vedas discuss similar ideas and concepts.[18]

Etymology and usage[]

The Sanskrit word Template:IAST "knowledge, wisdom" is derived from the root vid- "to know". This is reconstructed as being derived from the Proto-Indo-European root Template:PIE, meaning "see" or "know".[20]

The noun is from Proto-Indo-European Template:PIE, cognate to Greek Template:Lang "aspect", "form" . Not to be confused is the homonymous 1st and 3rd person singular perfect tense Template:IAST, cognate to Greek Template:Lang (w)oida "I know". Root cognates are Greek ἰδέα, English wit, etc., Latin videō "I see", etc.[21]

The Sanskrit term Template:IAST as a common noun means "knowledge".[22] The term in some contexts, such as hymn 10.93.11 of the Rigveda, means "obtaining or finding wealth, property",[23] while in some others it means "a bunch of grass together" as in a broom or for ritual fire.[24]

A related word Vedena appears in hymn 8.19.5 of the Rigveda.[25] It was translated by Ralph T. H. Griffith as "ritual lore",[26] as "studying the Veda" by the 14th century Indian scholar Sayana, as "bundle of grass" by Max Müller, and as "with the Veda" by H.H. Wilson.[27]

Vedas are called Maṛai or Vaymoli in parts of South India. Marai literally means "hidden, a secret, mystery".[28][29] In some south Indian communities such as Iyengars, the word Veda includes the Tamil writings of the Alvar saints, such as Divya Prabandham, for example Tiruvaymoli.[30]

Chronology[]

Template:Main article The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts.[31][32] The Samhitas date to roughly 1700–1100 BC,[33] and the "circum-Vedic" texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000-500 BC, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BC, or the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age.[34] The Vedic period reaches its peak only after the composition of the mantra texts, with the establishment of the various shakhas all over Northern India which annotated the mantra samhitas with Brahmana discussions of their meaning, and reaches its end in the age of Buddha and Panini and the rise of the Mahajanapadas (archaeologically, Northern Black Polished Ware). Michael Witzel gives a time span of c. 1500 to c. 500-400 BC. Witzel makes special reference to the Near Eastern Mitanni material of the 14th century BC the only epigraphic record of Indo-Aryan contemporary to the Rigvedic period. He gives 150 BC (Patañjali) as a terminus ante quem for all Vedic Sanskrit literature, and 1200 BC (the early Iron Age) as terminus post quem for the Atharvaveda.[35]

Transmission of texts in the Vedic period was by oral tradition, preserved with precision with the help of elaborate mnemonic techniques. A literary tradition is traceable in post-Vedic times, after the rise of Buddhism in the Maurya period,Template:Refn perhaps earliest in the Kanva recension of the Yajurveda about the 1st century BC; however oral tradition of transmission remained active. Witzel suggests the possibility of written Vedic texts towards the end of 1st millennium BCE.[36] Some scholars such as Jack Goody state that "the Vedas are not the product of an oral society", basing this view by comparing inconsistencies in the transmitted versions of literature from various oral societies such as the Greek, Serbia and other cultures, then noting that the Vedic literature is too consistent and vast to have been composed and transmitted orally across generations, without being written down.[37] However, adds Goody, the Vedic texts likely involved both a written and oral tradition, calling it a "parallel products of a literate society".[38][37]

Due to the ephemeral nature of the manuscript material (birch bark or palm leaves), surviving manuscripts rarely surpass an age of a few hundred years.[39] The Sampurnanand Sanskrit University has a Rigveda manuscript from the 14th century;[40] however, there are a number of older Veda manuscripts in Nepal that are dated from the 11th century onwards.[41]

Ancient universities[]

The Vedas, Vedic rituals and its ancillary sciences called the Vedangas, were part of the curriculum at ancient universities such as at Taxila, Nalanda and Vikramashila.[42][43][44][45]

Categories of Vedic texts[]

File:Rigveda MS2097.jpg

Rigveda manuscript in Devanagari

The term "Vedic texts" is used in two distinct meanings:

  1. Texts composed in Vedic Sanskrit during the Vedic period (Iron Age India)
  2. Any text considered as "connected to the Vedas" or a "corollary of the Vedas"[46]

Vedic Sanskrit corpus[]

The corpus of Vedic Sanskrit texts includes:

  • The Samhitas (Sanskrit Template:IAST, "collection"), are collections of metric texts ("mantras"). There are four "Vedic" Samhitas: the Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-Veda, most of which are available in several recensions (Template:IAST). In some contexts, the term Veda is used to refer to these Samhitas. This is the oldest layer of Vedic texts, apart from the Rigvedic hymns, which were probably essentially complete by 1200 BC, dating to c. the 12th to 10th centuries BC. The complete corpus of Vedic mantras as collected in Bloomfield's Vedic Concordance (1907) consists of some 89,000 padas (metrical feet), of which 72,000 occur in the four Samhitas.[47]
  • The Brahmanas are prose texts that comment and explain the solemn rituals as well as expound on their meaning and many connected themes. Each of the Brahmanas is associated with one of the Samhitas or its recensions.[48][49] The Brahmanas may either form separate texts or can be partly integrated into the text of the Samhitas. They may also include the Aranyakas and Upanishads.
  • The Aranyakas, "wilderness texts" or "forest treaties", were composed by people who meditated in the woods as recluses and are the third part of the Vedas. The texts contain discussions and interpretations of ceremonies, from ritualistic to symbolic meta-ritualistic points of view.[50] It is frequently read in secondary literature.
  • Older Mukhya Upanishads ([[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad|Template:IAST]], Chandogya, [[Katha Upanishad|Template:IAST]], Kena, Aitareya, and others).[51][52]

The Vedas (sruti) are different from Vedic era texts such as Shrauta Sutras and Gryha Sutras, which are smriti texts. Together, the Vedas and these Sutras form part of the Vedic Sanskrit corpus.[52][53][54]

While production of Brahmanas and Aranyakas ceased with the end of the Vedic period, additional Upanishads were composed after the end of the Vedic period.[55]

The Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads, among other things, interpret and discuss the Samhitas in philosophical and metaphorical ways to explore abstract concepts such as the Absolute (Brahman), and the soul or the self (Atman), introducing Vedanta philosophy, one of the major trends of later Hinduism. In other parts, they show evolution of ideas, such as from actual sacrifice to symbolic sacrifice, and of spirituality in the Upanishads. This has inspired later Hindu scholars such as Adi Shankara to classify each Veda into karma-kanda (कर्म खण्ड, action/ritual-related sections) and jnana-kanda (ज्ञान खण्ड, knowledge/spirituality-related sections).[16][56]

Shruti literature[]

Template:Main article The texts considered "Vedic" in the sense of "corollaries of the Vedas" is less clearly defined, and may include numerous post-Vedic texts such as the later Upanishads and the Sutra literature. Texts not considered to be shruti are known as smriti (Sanskrit: Template:IAST; "the remembered"), or texts of remembered traditions. This indigenous system of categorization was adopted by Max Müller and, while it is subject to some debate, it is still widely used. As Axel Michaels explains:[51]

These classifications are often not tenable for linguistic and formal reasons: There is not only one collection at any one time, but rather several handed down in separate Vedic schools; Upanişads ... are sometimes not to be distinguished from Template:IAST...; Template:IAST contain older strata of language attributed to the Template:IAST; there are various dialects and locally prominent traditions of the Vedic schools. Nevertheless, it is advisable to stick to the division adopted by Max Müller because it follows the Indian tradition, conveys the historical sequence fairly accurately, and underlies the current editions, translations, and monographs on Vedic literature."[51]

The Upanishads are largely philosophical works, some in dialogue form. They are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.[57][58] Of the Vedic corpus, they alone are widely known, and the central ideas of the Upanishads are at the spiritual core of Hindus.[57][59]

Vedic schools or recensions[]

Template:Main article The four Vedas were transmitted in various [[Shakha|Template:IAST]]s (branches, schools).[60][61] Each school likely represented an ancient community of a particular area, or kingdom.[61] Each school followed its own canon. Multiple recensions are known for each of the Vedas.[60] Thus, states Witzel as well as Renou, in the 2nd millennium BC, there was likely no canon of one broadly accepted Vedic texts, no Vedic “Scripture”, but only a canon of various texts accepted by each school. Some of these texts have survived, most lost or yet to be found. Rigveda that survives in modern times, for example, is in only one extremely well preserved school of Śåkalya, from a region called Videha, in modern north Bihar, south of Nepal.[62] The Vedic canon in its entirety consists of texts from all the various Vedic schools taken together.[61]

Each of the four Vedas were shared by the numerous schools, but revised, interpolated and adapted locally, in and after the Vedic period, giving rise to various recensions of the text. Some texts were revised into the modern era, raising significant debate on parts of the text which are believed to have been corrupted at a later date.[63][64] The Vedas each have an Index or Anukramani, the principal work of this kind being the general Index or Template:IAST.[65][66]

Prodigious energy was expended by ancient Indian culture in ensuring that these texts were transmitted from generation to generation with inordinate fidelity.[67] For example, memorization of the sacred Vedas included up to eleven forms of recitation of the same text. The texts were subsequently "proof-read" by comparing the different recited versions. Forms of recitation included the Template:IAST (literally "mesh recitation") in which every two adjacent words in the text were first recited in their original order, then repeated in the reverse order, and finally repeated in the original order.[68] That these methods have been effective, is testified to by the preservation of the most ancient Indian religious text, the Rigveda, as redacted into a single text during the Brahmana period, without any variant readings within that school.[68]

The Vedas were likely written down for the first time around 500 BC.[69] However, all printed editions of the Vedas that survive in the modern times are likely the version existing in about the 16th century AD.[70]

Four Vedas[]

Template:Vedas and Shakhas The canonical division of the Vedas is fourfold (Template:IAST) viz.,[71]

  1. Rigveda (RV)
  2. Yajurveda (YV, with the main division TS vs. VS)
  3. Samaveda (SV)
  4. Atharvaveda (AV)

Of these, the first three were the principal original division, also called "Template:IAST"; that is, "the triple science" of reciting hymns (Rigveda), performing sacrifices (Yajurveda), and chanting songs (Samaveda).[72][73] The Rigveda is the oldest work, which Witzel states are probably from the period of 1900 to 1100 BC. Witzel, also notes that it is the Vedic period itself, where incipient lists divide the Vedic texts into three (trayī) or four branches: Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva.[61]

Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies such as newborn baby's rites of passage, coming of age, marriages, retirement and cremation, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the Upanishads (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).[12][14][15] The Upasanas (short ritual worship-related sections) are considered by some scholars[16][17] as the fifth part. Witzel notes that the rituals, rites and ceremonies described in these ancient texts reconstruct to a large degree the Indo-European marriage rituals observed in a region spanning the Indian subcontinent, Persia and the European area, and some greater details are found in the Vedic era texts such as the Grhya Sūtras.[74]

Only one version of the Rigveda is known to have survived into the modern era.[62] Several different versions of the Sama Veda and the Atharva Veda are known, and many different versions of the Yajur Veda have been found in different parts of South Asia.[75]

Rigveda[]

Template:Main article Template:Quote box The Rigveda Samhita is the oldest extant Indic text.[76] It is a collection of 1,028 Vedic Sanskrit hymns and 10,600 verses in all, organized into ten books (Sanskrit: mandalas).[77] The hymns are dedicated to Rigvedic deities.[78]

The books were composed by poets from different priestly groups over a period of several centuries from roughly the second half of the 2nd millennium BC (the early Vedic period), starting with the Punjab (Sapta Sindhu) region of the northwest Indian subcontinent.[79] The Rigveda is structured based on clear principles – the Veda begins with a small book addressed to Agni, Indra, and other gods, all arranged according to decreasing total number of hymns in each deity collection; for each deity series, the hymns progress from longer to shorter ones, but the number of hymns per book increases. Finally, the meter too is systematically arranged from jagati and tristubh to anustubh and gayatri as the text progresses.[61] In terms of substance, the nature of hymns shift from praise of deities in early books to Nasadiya Sukta with questions such as, "what is the origin of the universe?, do even gods know the answer?",[80] the virtue of Dāna (charity) in society,[81] and other metaphysical issues in its hymns.[82]

There are similarities between the mythology, rituals and linguistics in Rigveda and those found in ancient central Asia, Iranian and Hindukush (Afghanistan) regions.[83]

Samaveda[]

Template:Main article The Samaveda Samhita[84] consists of 1549 stanzas, taken almost entirely (except for 75 mantras) from the Rigveda.[51][85] The Samaveda samhita has two major parts. The first part includes four melody collections (gāna, गान) and the second part three verse “books” (ārcika, आर्चिक).[85] A melody in the song books corresponds to a verse in the arcika books. Just as in the Rigveda, the early sections of Samaveda typically begin with hymns to Agni and Indra but shift to the abstract. Their meters shift also in a descending order. The songs in the later sections of the Samaveda have the least deviation from the hymns derived from the Rigveda.[85]

In the Samaveda, some of the Rigvedic verses are repeated.[86] Including repetitions, there are a total of 1875 verses numbered in the Samaveda recension translated by Griffith.[87] Two major recensions have survived, the Kauthuma/Ranayaniya and the Jaiminiya. Its purpose was liturgical, and they were the repertoire of the [[udgatr|Template:IAST]] or "singer" priests.[88]

Yajurveda[]

Template:Main article The Yajurveda Samhita consists of prose mantras.[89] It is a compilation of ritual offering formulas that were said by a priest while an individual performed ritual actions such as those before the yajna fire.[89]

The earliest and most ancient layer of Yajurveda samhita includes about 1,875 verses, that are distinct yet borrow and build upon the foundation of verses in Rigveda.[90] Unlike the Samaveda which is almost entirely based on Rigveda mantras and structured as songs, the Yajurveda samhitas are in prose and linguistically, they are different from earlier Vedic texts.[91] The Yajur Veda has been the primary source of information about sacrifices during Vedic times and associated rituals.[92]

There are two major groups of texts in this Veda: the "Black" (Krishna) and the "White" (Shukla). The term "black" implies "the un-arranged, motley collection" of verses in Yajurveda, in contrast to the "white" (well arranged) Yajurveda.[93] The White Yajurveda separates the Samhita from its Brahmana (the Shatapatha Brahmana), the Black Yajurveda intersperses the Samhita with Brahmana commentary. Of the Black Yajurveda, texts from four major schools have survived (Maitrayani, Katha, Kapisthala-Katha, Taittiriya), while of the White Yajurveda, two (Kanva and Madhyandina).[94][95] The youngest layer of Yajurveda text is not related to rituals nor sacrifice, it includes the largest collection of primary Upanishads, influential to various schools of Hindu philosophy.[96][97]

Atharvaveda[]

Template:Main article The Artharvaveda Samhita is the text 'belonging to the Atharvan and Angirasa poets. It has about 760 hymns, and about 160 of the hymns are in common with the Rigveda.[98] Most of the verses are metrical, but some sections are in prose.[98] Two different versions of the text – the Template:IAST and the Template:IAST – have survived into the modern times.[98][99] The Atharvaveda was not considered as a Veda in the Vedic era, and was accepted as a Veda in late 1st millennium BC.[100][101] It was compiled last,[102] probably around 900 BC, although some of its material may go back to the time of the Rigveda,[103] or earlier.[98]

The Atharvaveda is sometimes called the "Veda of magical formulas",[104] an epithet declared to be incorrect by other scholars.[105] The Samhita layer of the text likely represents a developing 2nd millennium BC tradition of magico-religious rites to address superstitious anxiety, spells to remove maladies believed to be caused by demons, and herbs- and nature-derived potions as medicine.[106][107] The text, states Kenneth Zysk, is one of oldest surviving record of the evolutionary practices in religious medicine and reveals the "earliest forms of folk healing of Indo-European antiquity".[108] Many books of the Atharvaveda Samhita are dedicated to rituals without magic, such as to philosophical speculations and to theosophy.[105]

The Atharva veda has been a primary source for information about Vedic culture, the customs and beliefs, the aspirations and frustrations of everyday Vedic life, as well as those associated with kings and governance. The text also includes hymns dealing with the two major rituals of passage – marriage and cremation. The Atharva Veda also dedicates significant portion of the text asking the meaning of a ritual.[109]

Embedded Vedic texts[]

Brahmanas[]

Template:Further information The Brahmanas are commentaries, explanation of proper methods and meaning of Vedic Samhita rituals in the four Vedas.[110] They also incorporate myths, legends and in some cases philosophy.[110][49] Each regional Vedic shakha (school) has its own operating manual-like Brahmana text, most of which have been lost.[111] A total of 19 Brahmana texts have survived into modern times: two associated with the Rigveda, six with the Yajurveda, ten with the Samaveda and one with the Atharvaveda. The oldest dated to about 900 BC, while the youngest Brahmanas (such as the Shatapatha Brahmana), were complete by about 700 BC.[112][113] According to Jan Gonda, the final codification of the Brahmanas took place in pre-Buddhist times (ca. 600 BC).[114]

The substance of the Brahmana text varies with each Veda. For example, the first chapter of the Chandogya Brahmana, one of the oldest Brahmanas, includes eight ritual suktas (hymns) for the ceremony of marriage and rituals at the birth of a child.[115][116] The first hymn is a recitation that accompanies offering a Yajna oblation to Agni (fire) on the occasion of a marriage, and the hymn prays for prosperity of the couple getting married.[115][117] The second hymn wishes for their long life, kind relatives, and a numerous progeny.[115] The third hymn is a mutual marriage pledge, between the bride and groom, by which the two bind themselves to each other. The sixth through last hymns of the first chapter in Chandogya Brahmana are ritual celebrations on the birth of a child and wishes for health, wealth, and prosperity with a profusion of cows and artha.[115] However, these verses are incomplete expositions, and their complete context emerges only with the Samhita layer of text.[118]

Aranyakas and Upanishads[]

Template:Further information The Aranyakas layer of the Vedas include rituals, discussion of symbolic meta-rituals, as well as philosophical speculations.[17][50]

Aranyakas, however, neither are homogeneous in content nor in structure.[50] They are a medley of instructions and ideas, and some include chapters of Upanishads within them. Two theories have been proposed on the origin of the word Aranyakas. One theory holds that these texts were meant to be studied in a forest, while the other holds that the name came from these being the manuals of allegorical interpretation of sacrifices, for those in Vanaprastha (retired, forest-dwelling) stage of their life, according to the historic age-based Ashrama system of human life.[119]

The Upanishads reflect the last composed layer of texts in the Vedas. They are commonly referred to as Vedānta, variously interpreted to mean either the "last chapters, parts of the Vedas" or "the object, the highest purpose of the Veda".[120] The concepts of Brahman (Ultimate Reality) and Ātman (Soul, Self) are central ideas in all the Upanishads,Template:Sfn[121] and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus.[121][122] The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.[57][123] Of the Vedic corpus, they alone are widely known, and the central ideas of the Upanishads have influenced the diverse traditions of Hinduism.[57][124]

Aranyakas are sometimes identified as karma-kanda (ritualistic section), while the Upanishads are identified as jnana-kanda (spirituality section).[16][125] In an alternate classification, the early part of Vedas are called Samhitas and the commentary are called the Brahmanas which together are identified as the ceremonial karma-kanda, while Aranyakas and Upanishads are referred to as the jnana-kanda.[126]

Post-Vedic literature[]

Vedanga[]

Template:Main article The Vedangas developed towards the end of the vedic period, around or after the middle of the 1st millennium BC. These auxiliary fields of Vedic studies emerged because the language of the Vedas, composed centuries earlier, became too archaic to the people of that time.Template:Sfn The Vedangas were sciences that focused on helping understand and interpret the Vedas that had been composed many centuries earlier.Template:Sfn

The six subjects of Vedanga are phonetics ([[Shiksha|Template:IAST]]), poetic meter ([[Sanskrit prosody|Template:IAST]]), grammar ([[Vyakarana|Template:IAST]]), etymology and linguistics (Nirukta), rituals and rites of passage ([[Kalpa (Vedanga)|Template:IAST]]), time keeping and astronomy ([[Jyotisha|Template:IAST]]).[127]Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Vedangas developed as ancillary studies for the Vedas, but its insights into meters, structure of sound and language, grammar, linguistic analysis and other subjects influenced post-Vedic studies, arts, culture and various schools of Hindu philosophy.[128]Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The Kalpa Vedanga studies, for example, gave rise to the Dharma-sutras, which later expanded into Dharma-shastras.Template:Sfn[129]

Parisista[]

Template:Main article Template:IAST "supplement, appendix" is the term applied to various ancillary works of Vedic literature, dealing mainly with details of ritual and elaborations of the texts logically and chronologically prior to them: the Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Sutras. Naturally classified with the Veda to which each pertains, Parisista works exist for each of the four Vedas. However, only the literature associated with the Atharvaveda is extensive.

  • The Template:IAST is a very late text associated with the Rigveda canon.
  • The Template:IAST is a short metrical text of two chapters, with 113 and 95 verses respectively.
  • The Template:IAST, ascribed to [[Katyayana|Template:IAST]], consist of 18 works enumerated self-referentially in the fifth of the series (the [[Shakha|Template:IAST]]) and the Template:IAST.
  • The Template:IAST Yajurveda has 3 parisistas The Template:IAST, which is also found as the second praśna of the Template:IAST', the Template:IAST
  • For the Atharvaveda, there are 79 works, collected as 72 distinctly named parisistas.[130]

Upaveda[]

The term upaveda ("applied knowledge") is used in traditional literature to designate the subjects of certain technical works.[131][132] Lists of what subjects are included in this class differ among sources. The Charanavyuha mentions four Upavedas:[133]

  • Archery (Dhanurveda), associated with the Yajurveda
  • Architecture (Sthapatyaveda), associated with the Atharvaveda.
  • Music and sacred dance (Template:IAST), associated with the Samaveda
  • Medicine ([[Ayurveda|Template:IAST]]), associated with either the Rigveda or the Atharvaveda .[134][135]

"Fifth" and other Vedas[]

Some post-Vedic texts, including the Mahabharata, the Natyasastra[136] and certain Puranas, refer to themselves as the "fifth Veda".[137] The earliest reference to such a "fifth Veda" is found in the Chandogya Upanishad in hymn 7.1.2.[138]

Template:Quote

"Divya Prabandha", for example Tiruvaymoli, is a term for canonical Tamil texts considered as Vernacular Veda by some South Indian Hindus.[29][30]

Other texts such as the Bhagavad Gita or the Vedanta Sutras are considered shruti or "Vedic" by some Hindu denominations but not universally within Hinduism. The Bhakti movement, and Gaudiya Vaishnavism in particular extended the term veda to include the Sanskrit Epics and Vaishnavite devotional texts such as the Pancaratra.[139]

Puranas[]

Template:Main article The Puranas is a vast genre of encyclopedic Indian literature about a wide range of topics particularly myths, legends and other traditional lore.[140] Several of these texts are named after major Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi.[141][142] There are 18 Maha Puranas (Great Puranas) and 18 Upa Puranas (Minor Puranas), with over 400,000 verses.[140]

The Puranas have been influential in the Hindu culture.[143][144] They are considered Vaidika (congruent with Vedic literature).[145] The Bhagavata Purana has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre, and is of non-dualistic tenor.[146][147] The Puranic literature wove with the Bhakti movement in India, and both Dvaita and Advaita scholars have commented on the underlying Vedanta themes in the Maha Puranas.[148]

Western Indology[]

Template:Further information The study of Sanskrit in the West began in the 17th century. In the early 19th century, Arthur Schopenhauer drew attention to Vedic texts, specifically the Upanishads. The importance of Vedic Sanskrit for Indo-European studies was also recognized in the early 19th century. English translations of the Samhitas were published in the later 19th century, in the Sacred Books of the East series edited by Müller between 1879 and 1910.[149] Ralph T. H. Griffith also presented English translations of the four Samhitas, published 1889 to 1899.

Voltaire regarded Vedas to be exceptional, he remarked that:

Template:Quotation

Rigveda manuscripts were selected for inscription in UNESCO's Memory of the World Register in 2007.[150]

See also[]

  • Hindu philosophy
  • Historical Vedic religion
  • Pyramid Texts
  • Shakha
  • Vedic chant

Notes[]

  1. "Weber". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
  2. see e.g. Template:Harvnb; Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Template:IAST", in: Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb; Sanskrit literature (2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09
  3. Sanujit Ghose (2011). "Religious Developments in Ancient India" in Ancient History Encyclopedia.
  4. Vaman Shivaram Apte, The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary, see apauruSeya
  5. D Sharma, Classical Indian Philosophy: A Reader, Columbia University Press, ISBN , pages 196-197
  6. Jan Westerhoff (2009), Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka: A Philosophical Introduction, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN, page 290
  7. Warren Lee Todd (2013), The Ethics of Śaṅkara and Śāntideva: A Selfless Response to an Illusory World, Template:ISBN, page 128
  8. Template:Harvnb
  9. Sheldon Pollock (2011), Boundaries, Dynamics and Construction of Traditions in South Asia (Editor: Federico Squarcini), Anthem, Template:ISBN, pages 41-58
  10. 10.0 10.1 Hartmut Scharfe (2002), Handbook of Oriental Studies, BRILL Academic, Template:ISBN, pages 13-14
  11. Seer of the Fifth Veda: Kr̥ṣṇa Dvaipāyana Vyāsa in the Mahābhārata Bruce M. Sullivan, Motilal Banarsidass, pages 85-86
  12. 12.0 12.1 12.2 Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, Template:ISBN, pages 35-39
  13. Bloomfield, M. The Atharvaveda and the Gopatha-Brahmana, (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde II.1.b.) Strassburg 1899; Gonda, J. A history of Indian literature: I.1 Vedic literature (Samhitas and Brahmanas); I.2 The Ritual Sutras. Wiesbaden 1975, 1977
  14. 14.0 14.1 A Bhattacharya (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology, Template:ISBN, pages 8-14; George M. Williams (2003), Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN, page 285
  15. 15.0 15.1 Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, Template:ISBN
  16. 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 A Bhattacharya (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology, Template:ISBN, pages 8-14
  17. 17.0 17.1 17.2 Barbara A. Holdrege (1995), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, pages 351-357
  18. 18.0 18.1 Template:Harvnb
  19. "astika" and "nastika". Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 20 Apr. 2016
  20. Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb
  21. see e.g. Pokorny's 1959 Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch s.v. Template:PIE²; Rix' Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben, Template:PIE.
  22. Template:MWSD, page 1015
  23. Template:MWSD, page 1017 (2nd Column)
  24. Template:MWSD, page 1017 (3rd Column)
  25. Sanskrit: यः समिधा य आहुती यो वेदेन ददाश मर्तो अग्नये । यो नमसा स्वध्वरः ॥५॥, ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं ८.१९, Wikisource
  26. K.F. Geldner, Der Rig-Veda, Harvard Oriental Series 33-37, Cambridge 1951
  27. HH Wilson, Rig-veda Sanhita Sixth Ashtaka, First Adhayaya, Sukta VII (8.19.5), page 291, Trubner London
  28. Vasudha Narayanan (1994), The Vernacular Veda: Revelation, Recitation, and Ritual, University of South Carolina Press, Template:ISBN, pages 194
  29. 29.0 29.1 John Carman (1989), The Tamil Veda: Pillan's Interpretation of the Tiruvaymoli, University of Chicago Press, Template:ISBN, pages 259-261
  30. 30.0 30.1 Vasudha Narayanan (1994), The Vernacular Veda: Revelation, Recitation, and Ritual, University of South Carolina Press, Template:ISBN, pages 43, 117-119
  31. Template:Cite book
  32. Template:Cite book
  33. Template:Cite book
  34. Gavin Flood sums up mainstream estimates, according to which the Rigveda was compiled from as early as 1500 BC over a period of several centuries. Template:Harvnb
  35. Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Template:IAST", in: Template:Harvnb
  36. Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Template:IAST", in: Template:Harvnb; For oral composition and oral transmission for "many hundreds of years" before being written down, see: Template:Harvnb.
  37. 37.0 37.1 Template:Cite book
  38. Template:Cite journal
  39. Template:Citation
  40. Template:Cite book
  41. Template:Cite web
  42. Buswell, Robert E.; Lopez, Jr., Donald S. (2013). The Princeton dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Template:ISBN. Entry on "Nālandā".
  43. Template:Cite book
  44. Template:Cite book
  45. Sukumar Dutt (1988) [First published in 1962]. Buddhist Monks And Monasteries of India: Their History And Contribution To Indian Culture. George Allen and Unwin Ltd, London. Template:ISBN. pg. 332-333
  46. according to ISKCON, Hindu Sacred Texts, "Hindus themselves often use the term to describe anything connected to the Vedas and their corollaries (e.g. Vedic culture)".
  47. 37,575 are Rigvedic. Of the remaining, 34,857 appear in the other three Samhitas, and 16,405 are known only from Brahmanas, Upanishads or Sutras
  48. Klaus Klostermaier (1994), A Survey of Hinduism, Second Edition, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, pages 67-69
  49. 49.0 49.1 Brahmana Encyclopædia Britannica (2013)
  50. 50.0 50.1 50.2 Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, Template:ISBN, page 424-426
  51. 51.0 51.1 51.2 51.3 Template:Harvnb.
  52. 52.0 52.1 Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Template:IAST", in: Template:Harvnb.
  53. For a table of all Vedic texts see Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Template:IAST", in: Template:Harvnb.
  54. The Vedic Sanskrit corpus is incorporated in A Vedic Word Concordance (Template:IAST) prepared from 1930 under Vishva Bandhu, and published in five volumes in 1935-1965. Its scope extends to about 400 texts, including the entire Vedic Sanskrit corpus besides some "sub-Vedic" texts. Volume I: Samhitas, Volume II: Brahmanas and Aranyakas, Volume III: Upanishads, Volume IV: Vedangas; A revised edition, extending to about 1800 pages, was published in 1973-1976.
  55. Template:Harvnb
  56. Edward Roer (Translator), Template:Google books to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad at pages 1-5; Quote - "The Vedas are divided in two parts, the first is the karma-kanda, the ceremonial part, also (called) purva-kanda, and treats on ceremonies; the second part is the jnana kanda, the part which contains knowledge, also named uttara-kanda or posterior part, and unfolds the knowledge of Brahma or the universal soul."
  57. 57.0 57.1 57.2 57.3 Wendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, Template:ISBN, pages 2-3; Quote: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."
  58. Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al.), State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, page 39; Quote: "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self.";
    Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin, Template:ISBN, pages 208-210
  59. Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN, page 3; Quote: "Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism".
  60. 60.0 60.1 Template:Harvnb.
  61. 61.0 61.1 61.2 61.3 61.4 Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu", Harvard University, in Template:Harvnb
  62. 62.0 62.1 Jamison and Witzel (1992), Vedic Hinduism, Harvard University, page 6
  63. J. Muir (1868), Template:Google books, 2nd Edition, page 12
  64. Albert Friedrich Weber, Template:Google books, Volume 10, pp 1-9 with footnotes (in German); For a translation, Template:Google books, page 14
  65. For an example, see Sarvānukramaṇī Vivaraṇa Univ of Pennsylvania rare texts collection
  66. R̥gveda-sarvānukramaṇī Śaunakakr̥tāʼnuvākānukramaṇī ca, Maharṣi-Kātyayāna-viracitā, Template:Oclc
  67. Template:Harv
  68. 68.0 68.1 Template:Harv
  69. Template:Harvnb
  70. Michael Witzel, "Vedas and Template:IAST", in: Template:Harvnb, Quote: "... almost all printed editions depend on the late manuscripts that are hardly older than 500 years"
  71. Template:Harvnb; Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Template:IAST", in: Template:Harvnb
  72. Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Template:Harvnb
  73. Template:Harvnb
  74. Jamison and Witzel (1992), Vedic Hinduism, Harvard University, page 21
  75. Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Template:Harvnb
  76. see e.g. Template:Harvnb.
  77. For 1,028 hymns and 10,600 verses and division into ten mandalas, see: Template:Harvnb.
  78. For characterization of content and mentions of deities including Agni, Indra, Varuna, Soma, Surya, etc. see: Template:Harvnb.
  79. see e.g. Template:Harvnb Max Müller gave 1700–1100 BC, Michael Witzel gives 1450-1350 BC as terminus ad quem.
  80. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named nasadiyasukta
  81. Original text translated in English: The Rig Veda, Mandala 10, Hymn 117, Ralph T. H. Griffith (Translator);
    C Chatterjee (1995), Values in the Indian Ethos: An Overview, Journal of Human Values, Vol 1, No 1, pages 3-12
  82. For example,
    Hymn 1.164.34, "What is the ultimate limit of the earth?", "What is the center of the universe?", "What is the semen of the cosmic horse?", "What is the ultimate source of human speech?"
    Hymn 1.164.34, "Who gave blood, soul, spirit to the earth?", "How could the unstructured universe give origin to this structured world?"
    Hymn 1.164.5, "Where does the sun hide in the night?", "Where do gods live?"
    Hymn 1.164.6, "What, where is the unborn support for the born universe?";
    Hymn 1.164.20 (a hymn that is widely cited in the Upanishads as the parable of the Body and the Soul): "Two birds with fair wings, inseparable companions; Have found refuge in the same sheltering tree. One incessantly eats from the fig tree; the other, not eating, just looks on.";
    Sources: (a) Antonio de Nicholas (2003), Meditations Through the Rig Veda: Four-Dimensional Man, Template:ISBN, pages 64-69;
    Jan Gonda, A History of Indian Literature: Veda and Upanishads, Volume 1, Part 1, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, Template:ISBN, pages 134-135;
    Rigveda Book 1, Hymn 164 Wikisource
  83. Michael Witzel, The Rigvedic religious system and its central Asian and Hindukush antecedents, in The Vedas - Texts, Language and Ritual, Editors: Griffiths and Houben (2004), Brill Academic, Template:ISBN, pages 581-627
  84. (from Template:IAST, the term for a melody applied to a metrical hymn or a song of praise, Template:Harvnb.
  85. 85.0 85.1 85.2 Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Template:Harvnb
  86. M Bloomfield, Template:Google books, pages 402-464
  87. For 1875 total verses, see the numbering given in Ralph T. H. Griffith. Griffith's introduction mentions the recension history for his text. Repetitions may be found by consulting the cross-index in Griffith pp. 491-99.
  88. Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus (2011), Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism, Walter de Gruyter, Template:ISBN, page 381
  89. 89.0 89.1 Michael Witzel (2003), "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism (Editor: Gavin Flood), Blackwell, Template:ISBN, pages 76-77
  90. Antonio de Nicholas (2003), Meditations Through the Rig Veda: Four-Dimensional Man, Template:ISBN, pages 273-274
  91. Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Template:Harvnb
  92. Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Template:Harvnb
  93. Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 217-219
  94. Template:Harvnb
  95. CL Prabhakar (1972), The Recensions of the Sukla Yajurveda, Archív Orientální, Volume 40, Issue 1, pages 347-353
  96. Paul Deussen, The Philosophy of the Upanishads, Motilal Banarsidass (2011 Edition), Template:ISBN, page 23
  97. Patrick Olivelle (1998), Upaniṣhads, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN, pages 1-17
  98. 98.0 98.1 98.2 98.3 Template:Harvnb.
  99. Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin, Template:ISBN, pages 136-137
  100. Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin, Template:ISBN, page 135
  101. Alex Wayman (1997), Untying the Knots in Buddhism, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 52-53
  102. "The latest of the four Vedas, the Atharva-Veda, is, as we have seen, largely composed of magical texts and charms, but here and there we find cosmological hymns which anticipate the Upanishads, -- hymns to Skambha, the 'Support', who is seen as the first principle which is both the material and efficient cause of the universe, to Prāna, the 'Breath of Life', to Vāc, the 'Word', and so on." Template:Harvnb.
  103. Template:Harvnb.
  104. Laurie Patton (2004), Veda and Upanishad, in The Hindu World (Editors: Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby), Routledge, Template:ISBN, page 38
  105. 105.0 105.1 Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas, Vol 1, Fasc. 1, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, Template:ISBN, pages 277-280, Quote: "It would be incorrect to describe the Atharvaveda Samhita as a collection of magical formulas".
  106. Kenneth Zysk (2012), Understanding Mantras (Editor: Harvey Alper), Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 123-129
  107. On magic spells and charms, such as those to gain better health: Atharva Veda 2.32 Bhaishagykni, Charm to secure perfect health Maurice Bloomfield (Translator), Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 42, Oxford University Press; see also chapters 3.11, 3.31, 4.10, 5.30, 19.26;
    On finding a good husband: Atharva Veda 4.2.36 Strijaratani Maurice Bloomfield (Translator), Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 42, Oxford University Press; Atharvaveda dedicates over 30 chapters to love relationships, sexuality and for conceiving a child, see e.g. chapters 1.14, 2.30, 3.25, 6.60, 6.78, 6.82, 6.130-6.132; On peaceful social and family relationships: Atharva Veda 6.3.30 Maurice Bloomfield (Translator), Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 42, Oxford University Press;
  108. Kenneth Zysk (1993), Religious Medicine: The History and Evolution of Indian Medicine, Routledge, Template:ISBN, pages x-xii
  109. Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Template:Harvnb
  110. 110.0 110.1 Klaus Klostermaier (1994), A Survey of Hinduism, Second Edition, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, pages 67-69
  111. Moriz Winternitz (2010), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 175-176
  112. Michael Witzel, "Tracing the Vedic dialects" in Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes ed. Caillat, Paris, 1989, 97–265.
  113. Biswas et al (1989), Cosmic Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, Template:ISBN, pages 42-43
  114. Klaus Klostermaier (1994), A Survey of Hinduism, Second Edition, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, page 67
  115. 115.0 115.1 115.2 115.3 Max Müller, Chandogya Upanishad, The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, page LXXXVII with footnote 2
  116. Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, page 63
  117. Template:Google books, The Calcutta Review, Volume 60, page 27
  118. Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, Template:ISBN, pages 319-322, 368-383 with footnotes
  119. AB Keith (2007), The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 489-490
  120. Max Müller, The Upanishads, Part 1, Oxford University Press, page LXXXVI footnote 1
  121. 121.0 121.1 PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, pages 35-36
  122. WD Strappini, Template:Google books, The Month and Catholic Review, Vol. 23, Issue 42
  123. Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al), State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, page 39; Quote: "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self.";
    Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin, Template:ISBN, pages 208-210
  124. Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN, page 3; Quote: "Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism".
  125. See Template:Google books to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad at pages 1-5; Quote - "The Vedas are divided in two parts, the first is the karma-kanda, the ceremonial part, also (called) purva-kanda, and treats on ceremonies; the second part is the jnana kanda, the part which contains knowledge, also named uttara-kanda or posterior part, and unfolds the knowledge of Brahma or the universal soul." (Translator: Edward Roer)
  126. Stephen Knapp (2005), The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination, Template:ISBN, pages 10-11
  127. James Lochtefeld (2002), "Vedanga" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A-M, Rosen Publishing, Template:ISBN, pages 744-745
  128. Template:Cite book
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    English translation: Chandogya Upanishad 7.1.2, G Jha (Translator), Oriental Book Agency, page 368
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References[]

Bibliography[]

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Further reading[]

Overviews
  • J. Gonda, Vedic Literature: Template:IAST, A History of Indian literature. Vol. 1, Veda and Upanishads, Wiesnaden: Harrasssowitz (1975), Template:ISBN.
  • J. A. Santucci, An Outline of Vedic Literature, Scholars Press for the American Academy of Religion, (1976).
  • S. Shrava, A Comprehensive History of Vedic Literature — Brahmana and Aranyaka Works, Pranava Prakashan (1977).
Concordances
  • M. Bloomfield, A Vedic Concordance (1907)
  • Vishva Bandhu, Bhim Dev, S. Bhaskaran Nair (eds.), Template:IAST: A Vedic Word-Concordance, Vishveshvaranand Vedic Research Institute, Hoshiarpur, 1963–1965, revised edition 1973-1976.
Conference proceedings
  • Griffiths, Arlo and Houben, Jan E. M. (eds.), The Vedas : texts, language & ritual: proceedings of the Third International Vedic Workshop, Leiden 2002, Groningen Oriental Studies 20, Groningen : Forsten, (2004), Template:ISBN.

External links[]

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